Polish Music / Muzyka Polska

Composition

The Polish akordeon (accordion) is a versatile and box-shaped musical wind instrument with bellows. The instrument consists of three main parts: the melodic side, the bass side, and the sound box. The melodic side on the right has either a piano-like keyboard or buttons arranged in two to three rows, with 10 to 18 keys or buttons on each row. The bass side, on the left, has three to five rows with 12 to 120 buttons corresponding to bass notes and chord combinations. The heart of the instrument is a sound box with reeds and bellows. The folding of the bellows forces air through the reeds, causing the instrument to produce sound (KurzNaMuzyke; Wita; Institute of Music and Dance). 

Variations

Polish accordions come in different shapes, sizes, and configurations, reflecting their versatility, different musical styles, and regional origins.

Although the words akordeon (accordion) and harmonia (harmonium) are used interchangeably in Polish, it is important to understand that they are not the same. The akordeon (accordion) has a piano-like keyboard or buttons (button accordion), producing the same notes when the bellows open and close. The harmonia (harmonium) uses only rectangular or square buttons arranged in rows, producing different notes when the bellows open and close (Wita). 

The heligonka is a type of accordion that is popular in the Silesia and Żywiec regions. Similar to the harmonica, it produces different sounds when the bellows are pushed in and pulled out, making it harder to play. 

The pedal accordion is the most famous type of accordion. Commonly used in Polish traditional music, this accordion is known for its distinctive sound. Unlike other accordions, it has two foot-operated pedals that work like organ-like bellows, forcing the through reeds through a pipe connecting the pedals and accordion. Like the organ, the pedals enable the player to produce the bass notes, making the accordion sound louder and richer. (Wheeler)

Composition

The cymbały consist of a soundboard, frame, bridges, strings, and tuning pins. The soundboard is a trapezoidal wooden box made of spruce or pine, with 10 to 20 courses of stretched strings across its surface. Each course consists of a set of multiple strings that are tuned to the same pitch. The frame helps to support the tension of the strings, while bridges transmit string vibrations to the soundboard. The tuning pins help to regulate the string tension (Kettlewell). 

Variations

Cymbały, like many traditional instruments, vary by region. There are cymbały from the Carpathian, Vilnius, and Lesser Poland regions. 

Carpathian cymbały became widely used for accompanying folk dances like polkas and obereks and by peasant ensembles by the 20th century (Czekanowska, 172). This regional variation is characterized by louder music and larger sizes. They typically have 18 courses, each containing 5 strings, totaling 90 strings. Decoration includes brown-stained wood, floral rosettes over resonance holes, and inlaid geometric patterns. You can learn more about the Carpathian cymbały exhibited at the Ethnographic Museum in Rzeszów by visiting the Institute of Music and Dance. 

Vilnius cymbały are smaller and more portable. They account for 16 courses of 5 strings, totaling 80 strings. Notably, they are also more portable than Carpathian models, often used by Jewish and Romany musicians. Vilnius cymbały is part of the exhibition at the Museum of Folk Musical Instruments in Szydłowiec and is accessible digitally at the Institute of Music and Dance. 

Małopolska (Lesser Poland) cymbały from the 19th century feature decorative resonance holes covered with floral rosettes. They have 17 courses of 4 strings, totaling 68 strings. Similarly, Małopolska cymbały from the State Ethnographic Museum in Warsaw can be digitally accessed at the Institute of Music and Dance.

Composition

The dudy has a complex composition which is influenced by region— it varies in size, tone, number of drone pipes, design, and materials. Overall, the dudy consists of a bag, a bellow or blowpipe (less common), one or multiple drone pipes, and a chanter with six finger holes and one for the thumb. Each pipe also has a reed. The player controls the airflow, either using a blowpipe to force air or a bellows to arm-pump air into the bag, producing sound once the air reaches the pipes (Cocks).

Variations

Types of Polish bagpipes differ by region, specifically three geographical regions of Poland: Podhale (Tatra Mountains), Greater Poland (Wielkopolska), and Beskidy (Zywiec and Silesia regions). Explore different types of Polish bagpipes.

The dudy podhalańskie (Podhale bagpipes) are called koza, meaning female goat. It is most likely because the bag was traditionally made from the hide of a doe goat. This type is the most distinguishable for its structural differences and unique sound, although they are no longer in use and are seen as historical relics. The structure has three drones, one in a separate drone pipe and two in the chanter that has three channels — one for the melody, one for the drone, and one for direct blowing. Unlike other types, it has five finger holes, uses a blowpipe instead of a bellow, and lacks a bell at the end of the pipes (Nazina; Czekanowska 163-164). 

The dudy wielkopolskie (Greater Poland bagpipes) are the most well-known and preserved type of bagpipe, commonly used today in traditional weddings and folk music. The wielkopolskie dudy use an arm-pumped bellow with a single-channel chanter. The drone is made of two interconnected pieces that have the air indirectly pumped with bellows. Unlike others, the drone is bent twice at a 180° angle and has a typical bell (Morawska; Cocks; Czekanowska 163). The dudy and kozioł are two types of bagpipes in Greater Poland. The dudy from this region have six finger holes and one thumbhole, with a slightly smaller range and a higher pitch. The kozioł (meaning male goat) is regarded as a noble bagpipe and used to be played at weddings. It has a seventh hole for the little finger with the widest range and deepest tone. 

The dudy beskidzkie (Beskidy bagpipes) are distinguished by Żywiec dudy and Silesian Gajdy. Żywiec dudy are mouth-blown with a longer drone pipe and a single chanter with six fingerholes and one for the thumbhole. Silesian Gajdy are bellow-blown with structural similarities but only six finger holes and a shorter drone (Czekanowska 163; Nazina).

Style

There are a few techniques used to play the dudy. The first technique is closed fingering, which requires a player to cover all finger holes between notes to produce a sharp, strong, and rhythmic staccato sound. The second technique is overblowing, which allows a player to produce higher notes and expand the bagpipe range by increasing air pressure. The third technique is drone harmony, which requires a player to adjust the bag pressure and fingering to produce a balanced sound and rich harmonic textures (Przerembski). 

Composition

Fujarka has a simple construction — it is a long pipe that ranges in length around 20-30 inches (50-80 cm). Typically, it is made from a single piece of wood or tree branch, such as willow, elder, or linden. The fujarka, unlike other flutes, usually lacks holes. Instead, the player produces sound by forcing air into the instrument, increasing or reducing forced airflow to regulate the sound (Czekanowska, 157; Rice, 735). Longer fujarka flutes produce lower songs, and shorter ones have a higher range. 

Variations

The technical classification of flutes includes blown-end, duct, ductless, and fipple flutes. A blown-end flute is a generic term used to describe any flute played by forcing air into its ends, either duct or ductless ones. A duct flute uses an internal channel (duct) to direct airflow to the edge. A ductless flute is a type without a channel (duct) to direct airflow to the edge. Instead, the player must manually direct their breath across the edge of the mouthpiece to produce sound. A fipple flute is a specific term used to describe flutes with mouthpieces that have a built-in duct, which automatically directs airflow against a sharp edge to produce sound (Fosdick).

The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music singles out three main types of the Polish wooden flutes in the Carpathian region, such as the fujarka, fulyrka, and piszczałka. The highlanders can use the names for wooden flutes interchangeably, including other synonyms and regional terms. 

The classic fujarka is a flute without finger holes (ductless). It is common among the highlanders from the Podhale and Beskid Żywiecki regions, who use it to play traditional music. The player forces the air into a mouthpiece to produce different pitches, using techniques like breath control and overblowing. See an example of a fujarka.  

The fułyrka is a fipple (duct) flute and ranges in length from 9 to 14 inches (22-35 cm). This type has six to seven finger holes, allowing melodic flexibility See an example of the fułyrka.

The piszczalka, also known as dwojnica, is a wooden flute made from a single piece of wood and ranges in length from 11 to 13 inches (28-34 cm) approximately. This type has two pipes and separate mouthpieces. One of the pipes serves as the melody pipe with fingerholes, while the other acts as a drone (either with no holes or fewer holes). See an example of piszczalka.

Style

There are several techniques to play the Polish flutes, depending on the construction type. Overblowing refers to a technique when a player increases the air pressure to produce higher-pitched notes or harmonics. The fujarka requires the player to force air into the mouthpiece and control their breath to produce sound by aiming the breath at the edge of the flute. Subsequently, increasing or decreasing the force of airflow changes the sound. The fulyrka requires the player to force air into the mouthpiece and cover finger holes to play different notes, allowing to produce diatonic scales, the two-octave range by overblowing, or chromatic sounds by leaving the finger holes partly open. The piszczalka's player simultaneously forces air into two parallel pipes—one for melody, one for drone. Finger holes on the melody pipe control pitch, while steady breath keeps both pipes sounding together. 

Composition

The Polish lira korbowa has a body resembling a guitar that consists of a wooden resonating chamber, typically three to four mechanically bowed strings — one melodic and two for drone with rosin and keyboard for string stopping—stretched over its wooden wheel rotated by a crank (Czekanowska, 172). The instrument functions through a hand-cranked wheel that acts as a continuous bow against the strings. Melody strings, typically one or two, run through a key box containing small wedges called tangents. When the player presses the wooden keys, it shortens the effective length of the string to produce different pitches. Meanwhile, one or two drone strings continuously sound their fixed pitches, creating the instrument's characteristic buzzing accompaniment (Dahlig-Turek). 

Variations

The lira korbowa in the Mazovia region has a longer body and simplified key box mechanism, as it was used primarily by itinerant musicians who needed the instrument to be portable (Dahlig, 228). 

The lira korbowa in the Małopolska region maintained a standard mechanical configuration but reflected local aesthetic traditions, with typically had more elaborate decorative elements, such as carved rosettes and painted motifs (Stęszewska, 93).

Composition

The skrzypce consists of three main parts: the body, neck, and head. The hollow wooden body, known as the resonance box or soundbox, is made of spruce wood. The body has sound holes (F holes) that vibrate and produce the sound as the bow draws across the strings. The bridge is located between sound holes, transmitting vibrations to the body. The fingerboard, made of ebony, connects the neck and body. The four strings on the fingerboard are stretched from the tailpiece at the bottom to the tuning pegs at the top of the neck for tuning. The head holds a decorative scroll, and tuning pegs are used to adjust the strings (McNeela).

History

The skrzypce has a long history in Polish music — the bowed string instruments, like fiddles and similar regional prototypes, have been dominant in Polish musical practice. Although the instrument originated in Italy, the Poles claim equal rights to call the violin their traditional musical instrument due to the contributions the families of Polish violin makers made to the development and popularization of the instrument in the region since the 16th century. Earlier, some scholars even argued the violin evolved from the earlier prototypes of Polish fiddles, "polnische Geige," citing the 16th- and 17th-century works of German musical theorists like Martin Agricola and Michael Praetorius (Halski, 162-163). 

Fun Fact!

Polish folklore believes that the soul of a dead person resides in every skrzypce, and its sound could summon various supernatural beings (Halski, 168).

Variations

The diversity of violin-like instruments includes smaller fiddles such as the oktawka, gęśliki, źłobcoki, mazanki, and serby (Czekanowska, 165). 

The most interesting violin variation is the devil's violin, known as diable skrzypce. It has a string stretched between two ends of a stick, supported by a resonating wooden trunk. The trunk amplifies the vibrations of the string, creating sound. The pitch varies based on the tension applied when the string is plucked, either by fingers or a small wooden tool (Czekanowska, 156-157). Check out the diable skrzypce and hear it played.

Mazanki is a small three-stringed fiddle from Greater Poland. It is significantly smaller than the violin, approximately 1 foot 7 inches long. It consists of a resonant body shaped like a figure eight with slightly marked corners; the back plate, ribs, neck, pegbox, and endpin are carved from a single piece of wood (Czekanowska, 165; Halski, 166). 

The złobcoki is a hollowed-body fiddle with 3-4 strings. It is a regional variety of the fiddle from the Podhale region in the Carpathian Mountains, which was substituted by the violin (Czekanowska, 167). 

The oktawka is a compact 3-4 stringed variation of the fiddle crafted from a single piece of wood. It had a raised neck, tuning pegs located at the side, and didn’t have any bridge. The Polish-German dictionary of 1835 defined it as “a small fiddle for children, the strings of which encompass barely an octave” (Halski, 166). 

The fiddles like oktawka and złóbcoki represent regional diversity but are considered archaic as they lost popularity by the second half of the nineteenth century (Przerembski, 124). 

Czesław Halski, in his work, "Folk music in Poland: Songs, dances, instruments : a study of their origins and their development," addresses the decline in popularity of the violin-like instruments, particularly the mazanki and gęśliki. Halski links the start of the decline with industrialization and commercialization when mass-produced instruments flooded the market around the mid-nineteenth century (130-131). 

Style

Polish folk violin playing technique focuses on E and A upper strings played by three upper fingers switching between open and stopped strings. The use of two fingers only, the second and third, changed traditional melodies and their sequences. The cappotasta technique shortens the strings by binding them around the middle of the neck. The basic technique of sekund involves simple double stops based on triads, with occasional fifths and sevenths, and is commonly found in southern Poland. The basic technique of sekund involves simple double stops based on triads, with occasional fifths and sevenths, and is commonly found in southern Poland. The technique of sekund is more advanced in the Carpathian and Sub-Carpathian regions, incorporating chord inversions and suspensions, reflecting a higher level of collective playing. (Czekanowska, 165-176).

Composition

The suka has a boat-shaped or pear-shaped body typically carved from a single piece of maple or other hardwood, standing out from other fiddle-like instruments. The suka usually has three to four strings made from sheep intestine, although it is now more common to use metal strings. (Dahlig-Turek, 118). 

Variations

Although this traditional Polish folk instrument is primarily associated with the Biłgoraj region, historical and archeological findings suggest that the suka was present in several Polish regions. 

Another variation of suka was found in the Płock region of central Poland during archaeological excavations. This type had a slightly larger body, six strings, and the bridge has two unequally long legs. The longer leg passes through the resonance opening to the bottom of the soundbox, while the shorter leg sits on the instrument’s top surface (Rice, 737). 

History

The suka is also known in Polish literature as a "belly fiddle" or "knee-fiddle" because of the way it was held during the performance. The player rested the instrument on a knee, holding it in a vertical position against their torso. According to the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, "belly-fiddle" was documented in historical sources as early as 1545 but disappeared by 1900, with the drawing as a historical source that would later help to revive the instrument (Rice, 736). 

The combination of factors caused the suka to disappear from folk practice. The instrument experienced a decline in popularity and was gradually replaced by a more practical competitor — the violin — in a process known as "violinization." The instrument's construction was crude and impractical, as the player could not play each string separately due to the flat top of the bridge, limiting musical potential. For a player, holding the instrument in one position was tiring, while playing it with the fingernail technique was also inconvenient. Similarly to other fiddles, the industrialization and mass production of violins made the suka go extinct (Dahlig-Turek, 3-4). 

After disappearing into oblivion, the suka’s appearance was only preserved by a watercolor of the instrument painted by Wojciech Gerson in 1885. A physically damaged suka was discovered by ethnomusicologists in the Biłgoraj region in 1950. The rediscovery of the incomplete instrument and Wojciech Gerson’s drawing, along with historical accounts, made it possible to reconstruct the instrument (Czekanowska, 165-170).

Styles

The suka is usually held vertically and played with the fingernails by stopping the strings by touching them from the side instead of pressing down on them from above (Chybiński, 83). The player rests the instrument on their knee or holds it against their chest.

Tuning & sound

Although suka from Płock and Biłgoraj use the fingernail technique and vertical playing position, both instruments demonstrate different stages of the development, subsequently impacting their construction, sound, and playing techniques. 

The suka from Płock (16th century) had a flat bridge top, which prevented the performer from playing each string individually. Instead, the performer had to play bow all strings at once, playing a melody either with drone accompaniment or simply a continuous drone sound. As a result of the neck’s shortness, “the instrument could be played in only one position...and only one string could be stopped at a time," restricting musical potential (Dahlig-Turek, 3). 

In comparison, the Biłgoraj suka (19th century) demonstrates "a successive stage in the violinization process,” meaning that the instrument's construction has significantly evolved, adopting features of the violin (Dahlig, 119). The Biłgoraj suka was modified after the reconstruction with "a slightly arched bridge to allow playing on each string separately," allowing greater melodic expression (Dahlig-Turek, 6). 

Composition

There are several types of Polish trumpet with distinctive characteristics in construction. Typically, the trumpet consists of a straight tube made from wood, animal horns, or metal; a cup-shaped mouthpiece; a valve section; and a flatted bell. The sound is produced when the player forces the air into the mouthpiece, creating pressure waves and vibrations that flow through the instrument’s tube. Meanwhile, valves redirect airflow through additional tubing to change the pitch emitted by the flatted bell. 

Variations

The standard trumpet is the most popular type commonly used by Polish musicians. There are regional variations of trumpets commonly found in Poland as well.

The trombita (trembita, trąbita, trębita) from the Silesian Beskid region in Southern Poland is one of the longest musical instruments made — up to 5 meters long—and is made of wood (16.4 ft). It is used by highlanders and shepherds for communication and playing slow melodies (Morawska). 

The ligawka (ligawa) from the Mazovia region in Central Poland is one of the oldest types of trumpets. It is usually made from wood, lacks valves, and ranges in length from 1 to 1.5 meters (3.2-5 ft). The ligawka traditionally served as a tool of communication and ritual instrument played during Advent (Dahlig, 67).

The bazuna from the Pomeranian region in Northern Poland is the instrument that was of paramount importance for fishermen who used to communicate across lakes and coastal areas. This straight wooden horn ranged in length from 1 to 2 meters (3.2-6.4 ft) (Morawska).

Polish musicologist Zbigniew Przerembski distinguishes several types of folk trumpets based on their material, such as the natural trumpet (trąbka naturalna), wooden trumpet (trąbka drewniana), and horn trumpet (trąbka rogowa). According to Przerembski's description, a natural trumpet without valves produces only notes from the natural harmonic range. Whereas the wooden trumpet is carved from a single piece of wood and then bound with birchbark or metal rings, it's commonly found in mountainous regions. Lastly, the horn trumpet is made from animal horn and is one of the oldest forms and common in pastoral communities (Przerembski, 203).

Concerto for String Orchestra (1948)

String Quartet No. 4 (1951)

Music for Strings, Trumpets and Percussion (1958)

Violin Concerto No. 7 (1965)

Piano Quintet No. 1 (1952)

Piano Concerto No. 1 in E minor, Op. 11

Piano Sonata No. 2 in B-flat minor, Op. 35 ("Funeral March")

Polonaise in A-flat major, Op. 53 ("Heroic")

Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9 No. 2

Ballade No. 1 in G minor, Op. 23

Opera: Halka (Overture)

Opera: Straszny Dwór (Mazurka from The Haunted Manor)

Overture: Bajka (The Fairy Tale)

Song: Prząśniczka (The Spinner)

Song: Znaszli ten kraj (Do You Know the Land)

Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 17

Minuet in G, Op. 14 No. 1

Opera: Manru (Overture) 

Symphony in B minor "Polonia", Op. 24

Fantaisie Polonaise, Op. 19

Opera: King Roger (Roxana's Song)

Ballet: Harnasie (Full Ballet performance)

Stabat Mater, Op. 53 (Full performance)

Symphony No. 3 "Song of the Night", Op. 27

Violin Concerto No. 1, Op. 35

Violin Concerto No. 2 in D minor, Op. 22

Violin Concerto No. 1 in F-sharp minor, Op. 14

Légende, Op. 17

Scherzo-Tarantelle, Op. 16

Polonaise Brillante No. 1 in D major, Op. 4

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Polish Folk Musical Instruments by the Institute of Music and Dance. 

This project is a digital database of Polish musical instruments established by the Institute of Music and Dance in 2014. It provides a database of musical folk instruments exhibited in Polish museums. The exhibited instruments also contain cultural and historical information, audio recordings, high-quality images, and insightful videos. The project accounts for nearly 300 items found in Poland's various regions.

Pomianowska, Maria. The Voice of Suka. For Tune, 2016, 

We recommend you take a moment to listen to the ear-soothing melodies compiled by Maria Pomianowska in the digital album The Voice of Suka (2016). Maria Pomianowska is a Polish multi-instrumentalist, vocalist, composer, professor, and ethnomusicologist who actively participated in the revival of the suka. 

Żerańska-Kominek, Sławomira."Poland: History, Culture, and Geography of Music." The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture. Vol. 5. Thousand Oaks, SAGE Publications, Inc., 2019, pp. 1705-7.

Chybiński, Adolf. O polskiej muzyce ludowej [About Polish Folk Music]. 2nd ed., PWM Edition, 2007.

Cocks, William A., Anthony C. Baines, and Roderick D. Cannon. Bagpipe (Fr. cornemuse; Ger. Dudelsack, Sackpfeife; It. cornamusa, piva, zampogna; Port. gaita; Sp. cornamusa, gaita, zampoña). Grove Music Online, 20 Jan. 2001, https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.01773.

Czekanowska, Anna. Polish Folk Music: Slavonic Heritage, Polish Tradition, Contemporary Trends. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2006. 

Dahlig-Turek, Ewa. "Knee-Fiddles in Poland: Multidimensional Bridging of Paradigms." Etnomuzikologie, 2020, pp. 1-16.

Dahlig-Turek, Ewa. Ludowa praktyka muzyczna w komentarzach i opiniach wykonawców w Polsce(Folk Music Practice in Performers' Comments and Opinions in Poland). Institute of Art, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2015.

Dahlig, Ewa. "A Sixteenth-Century Polish Folk Fiddle from Płock." The Galpin Society Journal, vol. 47, 1994, pp. 111-122.

Dahlig, Piotr. "Traditional Fiddling in Contemporary Culture: Field Recordings from Mazovia." Ethnomusicology Journal, vol. 8, no. 3, 2011, pp. 220-235.

Fosdick, Howard. “What’s a Folk Flute?” Folk Flute World, https://folkfluteworld.com/all_about_folk_flutes/all_about_folk_flutes….

Halski, Czesaw. Folk Music in Poland: Songs, Dances, Instruments: A Study of Their Origins and Their Development. London: Polish Cultural Foundation, 1992.

Hedley, Arthur, and Leon Plantinga. "Frédéric Chopin." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederic-Chopin.

Henryk Wieniawski Musical Society. “Henryk Wieniawski (1835–1880): Life and Creation.” Henryk Wieniawski Musical Society. Henryk Wieniawski Musical Society, https://www.wieniawski.com/life_and_creation.html.

Kettlewell, David. “Cimbalom.” Grove Music Online, Oxford University Press, 2001, https://doi-org.www2.lib.ku.edu/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.08294.

KursNaMuzyke. “Akordeon - Wszystko, Co Chciałeś Wiedzieć O TZW. Harmonii: Blog.” Z Miłości Do Pięknej Muzyki!, 7 Aug. 2023, kursnamuzyke.pl/akordeon-wszystko-co-chciales-wiedziec-o-tzw-harmonii/.

McNeela, Paraic. "The Anatomy of the Violin: A Guide to the Structure of the Violin."  McNeela Music, https://blog.mcneelamusic.com/the-anatomy-of-the-violin-a-guide-to-the-….

Morawska, Katarzyna, Zygmunt M. Szweykowski, Zofia Chechlińska, Adrian Thomas, Jan Stęszewski, and Krzysztof Ćwiżewicz. Poland [Polish Republic] (Pol. Rzeczpospolita Polska). Grove Music Online, 20 Jan. 2001, https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.22001. 

Nazina, Inna D., Bálint Sárosi, and Jan Stęszewski. Dudy (ii) [Duda, Dude].Grove Music Online, 8 Dec. 2014, published online 25 May 2016, https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.L2294085. 

Polish Music Center. “Grażyna Bacewicz.” Polish Music Center. USC Thornton School of Music. https://polishmusic.usc.edu/research/composers/grazyna-bacewicz/.

Polish Music Center. "Ignacy Jan Paderewski." Polish Music Center. USC Thornton School of Music. https://polishmusic.usc.edu/research/composers/ignacy-jan-paderewski/.

Przerembski, Zbigniew Jerzy. "On the Playing Style and Repertory of Polish Bagpipe Players." Musicology Today, vol. 3, 2006, pp. 167–188, Institute of Art, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, https://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media/texts/musicology-today/2006-tom-3/musicol….

Przerembski, Zbigniew Jerzy. “The Multicultural Nature of Mountain-Folk Music in Poland.” Musicology Today, vol. 1, 2004, pp. 116–130. Institute of Art, Polish Academy of Sciences. https://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media/texts/musicology-today/2004-tom-1/musicol…;

Stęszewska, Zofia. Z zagadnień polskiej kultury muzycznej [Issues of Polish Musical Culture]. PWM Edition, 2008.

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Wheeler, Paul. "Basic Info about Accordions from Poland." Accordionists Central, accordionistscentral.com/basic-info-about-accordions-from-poland/.

Wita, Tadeusz. "Akordeon – Z Cyklu ABC Wiedzy o Instrumentach." MDK Łaziska Górne, mdk.laziska.pl/akordeon-z-cyklu-abc-wiedzy-o-instrumentach/. 

Zabieglińska, Sylwia. “Karol Szymanowski.” Polish Music Portal. Instytut Muzyki i Tańca, 2024. https://portalmuzykipolskiej.pl/en/osoba/493-karol-szymanowski/biografi….

Zieziula, Grzegorz. "Stanisław Moniuszko: Abridged Biography." Trans. Katarzyna Marzec. Polish Music Portal. Związek Kompozytorów Polskich, https://portalmuzykipolskiej.pl/en/osoba/4570-stanislaw-moniuszko.

All images on this page have been licensed through Adobe Stock's education license, Wikimedia Commons' creative common license, or are as follows:

Image credits

Violin image by Daniel from Pixabay

Fujarka photos used with permission from organology.net

Suka photo by Antekp, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Trąbka photo by http://muzyczny.pl, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

"Dudy Wielkopolskie Bagpipe" by kryptonic83 is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.